Democracy, Equality, And Equality - 1895 Words

Democracy to me means that everyone gets a fair chance and is able to decide and vote on what they feel is right not only for themselves but for the nation as a whole. Four main values of democracy are liberty, justice, freedom and equality. There must be a balance between liberty and equality so as to maintain order. In an authoritarian state, though there is peace and order, it comes at a cost to citizens because they lose their sense of freedom and are told what to do. There is no sense of liberty and typically one person decides what is fair, just, and equal. Whereas in a democracy, everyone typically has a voice in what happens therefore the outcome is most equal for everyone. When looking at education in a democratic society, it should follow the ideas of democratic equality. The three main forms of democratic equality seen in schools are â€Å"the pursuit of citizenship training, of equal treatment, and of equal access† (Labree). If a child is provided with these three things during their education, they will be able to make their own responsible choices as an adult with what path they chose to follow. On page 6 of Labree it says how a â€Å"democratic society cannot persist unless it prepares all of the young with equal care to take on the full responsibilities of citizenship in a competent manner.† I believe the purpose of education in a democracy is to allow equal opportunity and access to every student while teaching them how to become responsible citizens within theirShow MoreRelatedEquality, Diversity, and Democracy1348 Words   |  6 PagesJustice and Equality Cannot Coexist, For When One is Achieved the Other is Infringed Upon: Equality, diversity, and democracy are the three components that America claims to revolve around, but unfortunately lacks. America is a nation filled with envy, rage, and such preposterous behaviors and actions. 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It has exercised open-mindedness toward other cultures while it rejected aspects of multiculturalism. It has upheld an individual’s right toRead MoreThe Core Values All Citizens Of The United States Share Are Liberty, Equality, And Democracy Essay2176 Words   |  9 Pages The core values all citizens of the United States share are liberty, equality, and democracy. One right that falls under these guidelines is that of equal representation in the political atmosphere, namely voting. Undoubtedly, many Americans would consider the ability to vote fairly and freely a fundamental right grant ed by the Constitution. 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Essay on Napelon as Portrayed by Pushkin and Lermontov

â€Å"We all now pose as Napoleons-- Millions of two-legged creatures For us are the instrument of one.† --Eugene Onegin, by Pushkin Napoleon in Russian Thought Despite Russia’s own history with Napoleon Bonaparte in the Russian invasion of 1812, Russians came to view Napoleon with a strange sort of admiration and reverence. In much the same way as Western Europe at the time, Russians saw Napoleon as a symbol: an extraordinary modern man who overstepped boundaries and moral law to change history on his own terms. As a historical example or type, Napoleon surfaces in the writing of Gogol, Lermontov, Tolstoy, Tutchev and Pushkin. In his verse novel Eugene Onegin (1825-1832), Pushkin cites the influence of Napoleon in Russian thought: â€Å"We†¦show more content†¦ÃËœÃ' Ã'‡Ð µÃ · Ð ²Ã »Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å' Ð ¾Ã' Ã'Æ'Ð ¶Ã ´Ã µÃ ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹, ÐÅ"Ð ¾Ã ³Ã'Æ'Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ð ±Ã °Ã »Ã ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ ½Ã'Å' Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ±Ã µÃ ´, И Ð ´Ã »Ã'  Ð ¸Ã ·Ã ³Ã ½Ã °Ã ½Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ºÃ ° Ð ²Ã' Ã µÃ »Ã µÃ ½Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð £Ã ¶Ã µ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ¼Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã ¾ Ð ½Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã µÃ'‚. Napoleon’s name is always associated with military campaigns, bloody battles and thousands of perished soldiers. But Pushkin does not reproach him for this, but restrains himself before the supreme will of a Providence who pacified her mutinous hero. О Ã'‚Ã'‹, Ã'‡Ã'Å'Ð µÃ ¹ Ð ¿Ã °Ã ¼Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Å'Ã'Ž Ð ºÃ'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ¹ ÐÅ"Ð ¸Ã'€ Ð ´Ã ¾Ã »Ã ³Ã ¾, Ð ´Ã ¾Ã »Ã ³Ã ¾ Ð ±Ã'Æ'Ð ´Ã µÃ'‚ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã »Ã ½, ПÃ'€Ð ¸Ã ¾Ã' Ã µÃ ½Ã µÃ ½ Ã'‚Ð ²Ã ¾Ã µÃ'Ž Ã' Ã »Ã °Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ¹, ПÐ ¾Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ã' Ã'€Ð µÃ ´Ã ¸ Ð ¿Ã'Æ'Ã' Ã'‚Ã'‹Ð ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ã'… Ð ²Ã ¾Ã »Ã ½... â€Å"O hero, with whose bloodied story Long, long the earth will still resound, Sleep in the shadow of your story, The desert ocean all around† To Pushkin, Napoleon’s illustrious personality appears as a natural necessity of time; Napoleon’s enterprise is of a such enormous proportions, that Pushkin praises him even while discussing Napoleon’s attitude to Russia and does not belittle his glory and greatness: Ð Ã °Ã ´Ã ¼Ã µÃ ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹! Ð ºÃ'‚Ð ¾ Ã'‚Ð µÃ ±Ã'  Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ²Ã ¸Ã ³Ã ½Ã'Æ'Ð »? КÃ'‚Ð ¾ Ð ¾Ã ±Ã'Æ'Ã' Ã » Ã'‚Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ´Ã ¸Ã ²Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ã'Æ'Ð ¼? КÐ °Ã º Ã' Ã µÃ'€Ð ´Ã'†Ð ° Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ã' Ã' Ã ºÃ ¸Ã'… Ð ½Ã µ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã ³Ã ½Ã'Æ'Ð » Ð ¢Ã'‹ Ã'  Ð ²Ã'‹Ã' Ã ¾Ã'‚Ã'‹ Ð ¾Ã'‚Ð ²Ã °Ã ¶Ã ½Ã'‹Ã'… Ð ´Ã'Æ'Ð ¼? Ð’Ð µÃ »Ã ¸Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ´Ã'Æ'Ã'ˆÐ ½Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã °Ã'€Ð ° Ð Ã µ Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ ´Ã'Æ'Ð ·Ã ½Ã °Ã ², Ã'Æ'Ð ¶ Ã'‚Ã'‹ Ð ¼Ã µÃ'‡Ã'‚Ð °Ã », Ð §Ã'‚Ð ¾ Ð ¼Ã ¸Ã'€Ð ° Ð ²Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ²Ã'Å' Ð ¼Ã'‹ Ð ¶Ã ´Ã µÃ ¼, Ð ºÃ °Ã º Ð ´Ã °Ã'€Ð °; Ð Ã ¾ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ·Ã ´Ã ½Ã ¾ Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ã' Ã' Ã ºÃ ¸Ã'… Ã'€Ð °Ã ·Ã ³Ã °Ã ´Ã °Ã »... â€Å"Vainglorious man ! Where were you faring, Who blinded that astounding mind? How came it in designs of daring The Russian’s heart was not divined? At fiery sacrifice not guessing, You idly fancied, tempting fate, We would seek peace and count blessing; You came to fathom us too late†¦Ã¢â‚¬  To Pushkin, Napoleon is mythical hero; the last of

Manifest desiny Essay Example For Students

Manifest desiny Essay Manifest Destiny reflected the desire to grow and expand quickly. It also demonstrated the idealistic vision of social perfection that fueled so much of the reform energy of the time. All this rested on the idea that America was destined-by god and by history- to expand its boundaries over a vast area. The idea of Manifest Destiny had spread throughout the nation in the 1840s. It was heavily publicized by the new penny express which made newspapers available to a far greater proportion of the population than ever before. Some supporters of Manifest Destiny had relatively limited territorial goals; others envisioned a vast new empire of liberty that would include Canada, Mexico, Caribbean and Pacific islands, and ultimately, a few dreamed, much of the rest of the world. There was great enthusiasm over expansion in the 1840s and it all began with the issues of Texas and Oregon. There are several reasons why Americans embraced manifest destiny. Some reasons include European and colonial experience of Christianizing, European background and colonial background of racism, the rise of nationalism and ideals of nation-building, socioeconomic problems of mass urban population dynamics and the need for resources caused by capitalism and industrialization. Westward expansion began with territorial acquisitions that began in 1783. The first was acquired as a result of the American Revolution. The Treaty of Paris allotted the United States lands between the Appalachians and Mississippi River.These acquisitions doubled the size of the U.S. In 1803, Napoleon and the Louisiana purchase granted the U.S. that territory for $15 million. Napoleon struck a desperate deal with the U.S. in desperation for money to finance the costly wars in Europe. This again doubled the size of the United States. The Rush-Bagot Agreement, witch was signed in 1818, set the border of Canada at the 49 parallel. The U.S. also acquired part of N. Dakota and Minnesota. In 1819 the United States acquired Florida from Spain for $5 million in the treaty of Adams-0nis. The need for money in Spain and the belief that Florida was unprofitable due to its negative topography and Indian problem encouraged the Spanish to sell. The annexation of Texas, which was signed in 1845 was at the request of the Texas Republic and granted this territory to the United States. Texas had been its own country between 1836 and 1845. In 1846 the Oregon Compromise was signed. To avoid conflict, the U.S. and Britain established the boundary of the disputed territory at the 49 Parallel. With the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo the United States acquired the states of California and New Mexico. This cost the U.S. a total of $15 million and was a result of the Mexican War in 1846. The final acquisition took place in 1853. The Gadsen Purchase allotted the U.S. a strip of Arizona and New Mexico. This land, which was purchased from Mexico for $15 million, was greatly needed for a transcontinental railroad. This final acquisition completed manifest destiny. Bibliography:

The history of railways (Èñòîðèÿ æåëåçíûõ äîðîã) free essay sample

The history of railroads The railroad is # 1072 ; good illustration of # 1072 ; system evolved in variousplaces to carry through # 1072 ; need and so developed through empirical observation. In kernel it consists # 1086 ; f parallel paths or bars of metal or wood, supported transversally by other bars # 8212 ; rock, wood, steel and concrete have been used # 8212 ; so that Thursday # 1077 ; burden of the vehicle is spread equally through the infrastructure. Such paths were used in the Middle Ages for mining ropewaies in Europe ; railroads came to England in the sixteenth century and went back to Europe in the nineteenth century as an English innovation. English railroads The first Act of Parliament for # 1072 ; railroad, giving right of manner over other people s belongings, was passed in 1758, and the first for # 1072 ; public railroad, to transport the traffic of all comers, day of the months from 1801. The Stockton and Dailington Railway, opened on 27 September 1825, was the first public steam railroad in the universe, although it had merely one engine and relied on Equus caballus grip for the most portion, with stationary steam engines for working inclined planes. We will write a custom essay sample on The history of railways (Èà ±Ãƒ ²Ãƒ ®Ãƒ °Ãƒ ¨Ãƒ ¿ à ¦Ãƒ ¥Ãƒ «Ãƒ ¥Ãƒ §Ãƒ ­Ãƒ »Ãƒ µ à ¤Ãƒ ®Ãƒ °Ãƒ ®Ãƒ £) or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The obvious advantages of railroads as # 1072 ; agencies of conveying heavy tonss and riders brought about # 1072 ; proliferation of undertakings. The Liverpool A ; Manchester, 30 stat mis ( 48 kilometers ) long and including formidable technology jobs, became the authoritative illustration of # 1072 ; steam railroad for general passenger car. It opened on 15 September 1830 in the presence of the Duke of Wellington, who had been Prime Minister until earlier in the twelvemonth. On opening twenty-four hours, the train stopped for H2O and the riders alighted on to the opposite path ; another locomotor came along and William Huskisson, an # 1052 ; # 1056 ; and # 1072 ; great advocator of the railroad, was killed. Despite this calamity the railroad was # 1072 ; great success ; in its first twelvemonth of operation, gross from rider service was more than 10 times that anticipated. Over 2500 stat mis of railroad had been authorized in Britain and about 1500 completed by 1840. Britain presented the universe with # 1072 ; complete system for the building and operation of railroads. Solutions were found to civil technology jobs, motor power designs and the inside informations of turn overing stock. The natural consequence of these accomplishments was the naming in of British applied scientists to supply railroads in France, where as # 1072 ; effect left-hand rujning is still in force over many lines. Path gages While the bulk of railroads in Britain adopted the 4 foot 8.5 inch ( 1.43 m ) gage of the Stockton A ; Darlington Railway, the Great Western, on the advice of its brilliant but bizarre applied scientist Isambard Kingdom Brunel, had been laid to # 1072 ; seven pes ( 2.13 m ) gage, as were many of its associates. The attendant incommodiousness to bargainers caused the Gauge of Railways Act in 1846, necessitating standard gage on all railroads unless specially authorized. The last seven-foot gage on the Great Western was non converted until 1892. The narrower the gage the less expensive the building and care of the railroad ; narrow gages have been common in developing parts of the universe and in cragged countries. In 1863 steam grip was applied to the 1 foot 11.5 inch ( 0.85 m ) Festiniog Railway 1n Wales, for which engines were built to the designs of Robert Fairlie. # 1053 ; # 1077 ; so led # 1072 ; run for the building of narrow gages. As # 1072 ; consequence of the export of English technology and turn overing stock, nevertheless, most North American and European railroads have been built to the standard gage, except in Finland and Russia, where the gage is five pess ( 1.5 m ) . Transcontinental lines The first public railroad was opened in America in 1830, after which rapid development tookplace. # 1040 ; celebrated 4-2-0 engine called the Pioneerforemost ran from Chicago in 1848, and that metropolis became one of the largest rail Centres in the universe. The Atlantic and the Pacific oceans were foremost linked on 9 # 1052 ; # 1072 ; # 1091 ; 1869, in # 1072 ; celebrated ceremonial at the meeting point of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific lines at Promontory Point in the province of Utah. Canada was crossed by the Canadian Pacific in 1885 ; completion of the railroad was # 1072 ; status of British Columbia fall ining the Dominion of Canada, and considerable land grants were granted in virtually uninhabited district. The crossing of Asia with the Trans-Siberian Railway was begun by the Russians in 1890 and completed in 1902, except for # 1072 ; ferry traversing Lake Baikal. The hard transition round the south terminal of the lake, with many tunnels, was completed in 1905. Today more than half the path is electrified. In 1863 the Orient Express ran from Paris for the first clip and finally riders were conveyed all the manner to Istanbul ( Constantinople ) . Rolling stock In the early yearss, managers were constructed wholly of wood, including the frames. # 1042 ; # 1091 ; 1900, steel frames were platitude ; so managers were constructed wholly of steel and became really heavy. One American 85-foot ( 26 m ) manager with two six-wheel bogeies weighed more than 80 dozenss. New lightweight steel metals and aluminum began to be used ; in the 1950s the Budd company in America was constructing an 85-foot manager which weighed merely 27 dozenss. The nest eggs began with the bogeies, which were built without conventional springs, long pillows and so on ; with merely two air springs on each four-wheel bogey, the new design reduced the weight from 8 to 2,5 dozenss without loss # 1086 ; f strength or stableness. In the I880s, skyscraper autos were two-storey wooden new waves with Windowss used as going residence halls for railroad workers in the USA ; they had to be sawn down when the railroads began to construct tunnels through the mountains. After World War II bus autos of # 1072 ; m # 1086 ; R # 1077 ; compact design were built, this clip with fictile domes, so that riders could bask the dramatic scenery on the western lines, which pass through the Rocky Mountains. Lighting on managers was by agencies of oil lamps at foremost ; so gas visible radiations were used, and each manager carried # 1072 ; cylinder # 1086 ; degree Fahrenheit gas, which was unsafe in the event of accident or derailment. Finally dynamos on each auto, driven by the axle, provided electricity, storage batteries being used for when the auto was standing. Heating on managers was provided in the early yearss by metal containers filled with hot H2O ; so steam was piped from the engine, an excess drain on the engine s power ; today heat every bit good as visible radiation is provided electrically. Sleeping adjustments were foremost made on the Cumberland Valley Railroad in the United States in 1837. George Pullman s first autos ran on the Chicago A ; Alton Railroad in 1859 and the Pullman Palace Car Company was formed in 1867. The first Pullman autos operated in Britain in 1874, # 1072 ; twelvemonth after the debut of kiping autos by two British railroads. In Europe in 1876 the International Sleeping Car Company was formed, but in the interim George Nagelmackers of Liege and an American, Col William DAlton # 1052 ; # 1072 ; nn, began operation between Paris and Viennain 1873. Goods new waves [ freight autos ] have developed harmonizing to the demands of the assorted states. On the North American continent, goods trains every bit long as 1,25 stat mis are run every bit far as 1000 stat mis unbroken, haling majority such as natural stuffs and groceries. Freight autos weighing 70 to 80 dozenss have two four wheel bogeies. In Britain, with # 1072 ; denser population and closely next towns, # 1072 ; big per centum of trucking is of little cargos of manufactured goods, and the smallest goods new waves of any state are used, holding four wheels and, up to 24,5 dozenss capacity. # 1040 ; figure of bogie waggons are used for particular intents, such as passenger cars f # 1086 ; r steel tracks, armored combat vehicle autos for chemicals and 50 ton brick waggons. The earliest yoke system was links and buffers, which allowed jerked meats halting and get downing. Rounded buffers brought snugly together by accommodation of screw links with springs were an betterment. The horse chestnut automatic yoke, long criterion in North America, is now used in Britain. The yoke resembles # 1072 ; knuckle made of steel and widening horizontally ; fall ining # 1072 ; u # 1086 ; tom # 1072 ; tika11 # 1091 ; with the yoke of the following # 1089 ; # 1072 ; R when pushed together, it is released by drawing # 1072 ; pin. The first cargo of refrigerated goods was in 1851 when butter was shipped from New York to Boston in # 1072 ; wooden new wave packed with ice and insulated with sawdust. The majority of refrigerated goods were still carried by rail in the USA in the, 1960s, despite mechanical infrigidation in motor draw ; because of the greater first cost and care cost of mechanical infrigidation, rail infrigidation is still largely provided by new waves with ice packed in terminal sand traps, four to six inches ( 10 to 15 centimeter ) of insularity and fans to go around the cool air. Railwaies in wartime The first war in which railwaysfigured conspicuously was the American Civil War ( 1860-65 ) , in which the Union ( North ) was better able to form andmake usage of its railroads than the Confederacy ( South ) . The war was marked by # 1072 ; celebrated incident in which # 1072 ; 4-4-0 engine called the Generalwas hi-jacked by Southern agents. The eruption of World War 1 was caused in portion by the fact that the mobilisation programs of the assorted states, including the usage # 1086 ; f railroads and turn overing stock, was planned to the last item, except that there were n # 1086 ; commissariats for halting the programs once they had been put into action until the ground forcess were confronting each other. In 1917 in the United States, the lessons of the Civil War had been forgotten, and cargo new waves were sent to their finish with n # 1086 ; installations for droping, with the consequence that the railroads were briefly taken over by the authorities for the lone clip in that state s history. In World War 2, by contrast, the American railroads performed excellently, traveling 2,5 times the degree of cargo in 1944 as in 1938, with minimum addition in equipment, and providing more than 300,000 employees to the armed forces in assorted capacities. In combat countries, and in ulterior struggles such as the Korean war, it proved hard to interrupt an enemy s rail system efficaciously ; pinpoint bombardment was hard, impregnation bombardment was expensive and in any instance railroads were rapidly and easy repaired. State railroads State intercession began in England withpublic demand for safety ordinance which resulted in Lord Seymour s Act in 1840 ; the antecedently mentioned Railway Gauges Act followed in 1846. Ever since, the railroads havebeen recognized as one of the most of import of nationalresources in each state. In France, from 1851 onwards grants were granted for a planned regional system for which the Government provided ways and plants and the companies provided path and churning stock ; there was proviso for the gradual pickings over of the lines by the State, and the Societe Nationale des Chemins de Fer Francais ( SNCF ) was formed in 1937 as # 1072 ; company in which the State owns 51 % of the capital and theompanies 49 % . The Belgian Railways were planned by the State from the beginning in 1835. The Prussian State Railways began in 1850 ; b # 1091 ; the terminal of the twelvemonth 54 stat mis ( 87 kilometer ) were unfastened. Italian and Netherlands railroads began in 1839 ; Italy nationalized her railroads in 1905-07 and the Netherlands in the period 1920-38. In Britain the chief railroads were nationalized from 1 January 1948 ; the usual European form is that the State owns the chief lines and minor railroads are in private owned or operated by local governments. In the United States, between the Civil War and World W # 1072 ; r 1 the railroads, along with all the other of import inndustries, experienced phenomenal growing as the state developed. There were rate wars and fiscal buccaneering during # 1072 ; period of growing when industrialists were more powerful than the national authorities, and eventually the Interstate Commerce Act was passed in l887 in order to modulate the railroads, which had # 1072 ; near monopoly of conveyance. After World War 2 the railroads were allowed to deteriorate, as private auto ownership became about cosmopolitan and public money was spent on an interstate main road system doing motorway draw profitable, despite the fact that railroads are many times as efficient at traveling cargo and riders. In the USA, nationalisation of railroads would likely necessitate an amendment to the Constitution, but since 1971 # 1072 ; authorities attempt has been made to salvage the about defunct rider service. On 1 May of t hat twelvemonth Amtrack was formed by the National Railroad Passenger Corporation to run # 1072 ; skeleton service of 180 rider trains countrywide, functioning 29 metropoliss designated by the authorities as those necessitating train service. The Amtrack service has been to a great extent used, but non adequately funded by Congress, so that engagements, particularly for sleeper-car service, must be made far in progress. The engine Few machines in the machine age have inspired so much fondness as railroad engines in their 170 old ages of operation. Railwaies were constructed in the 16th century, but the waggons were drawn by musculus power until l804. In that twelvemonth an engine built by Richard Trevithick worked on the Penydarren Tramroad in South Wales. It broke some dramatis personae Fe tramplates, but it demonstrated that steam could be used for draw, that steam coevals could be stimulated by turning the fumes steam up the chimney to pull up the fire, and that smooth wheels on smooth tracks could convey motor power. Steam engines The steam engine is # 1072 ; robust and simple machine. Steam is admitted to # 1072 ; cylinder and by spread outing pushes the Piston to the other terminal ; on the return stroke # 1072 ; port opens to unclutter the cylinder of the now expanded steam. By agencies of mechanical yoke, the travel of the Piston turns the thrust wheels of the engine. Trevithick s engine was put to work as # 1072 ; stationary engine at Penydarren. During the undermentioned 25 old ages, # 1072 ; limited figure of steam engines enjoyed success on pit railroads, fostered by the surging cost of Equus caballus fresh fish towards the terminal of the Napoleonic wars. The dramatis personae Fe plateways, which were L-shaped to steer the waggon wheels, were non strong plenty to defy the weight of steam engines, and were shortly replaced by smooth tracks and flanged wheels on the turn overing stock. John Blenkinsop built several engines for pits, which ran on smooth tracks but familial power from # 1072 ; toothed wheel to # 1072 ; rack which ran alongside the running tracks. William Hedley was constructing smooth-whilled engines which ran on plateways, including the first to hold the popular moniker Puffing Billy. In 1814 George Stephenson began constructing for smooth tracks at Killingworth, synthesising the experience of the earlier interior decorators. Until this clip about all machines had the cylinders partially immersed in the boiler and normally perpendicular. In 1815 Stephenson and Losh patented the thought of direct thrust from the cylinders by agencies of grouchs on the thrust wheels alternatively of through cogwheel wheels, which imparted # 1072 ; arrhythmic gesture, particularly when wear occurred on the harsh cogwheels. Direct thrust allowed # 1072 ; simplified layout and gave greater freedom to interior decorators. In 1825 merely 18 steam engines were making utile work. One of the first commercial railroads, the Liverpool A ; Manchester, was being built, and the managers had still non decided between engines and # 1089 ; # 1072 ; bl # 1077 ; draw, with railside steam engines drawing the overseas telegrams. They organized # 1072 ; competition which was won by Stephenson in 1829, with his celebrated engine, the Rocket, now in London s Science Museum. Locomotive boilers had already evolved from # 1072 ; simple fluke to # 1072 ; return-flue type, and so to # 1072 ; cannular design, in which # 1072 ; nest of fire tubings, giving more heating surface, ran from the firebox tube-plate to # 1072 ; similar tube-plate at the smokebox terminal. In the smokebox the exhaust steam from the cylinders created # 1072 ; blast on its manner to the chimney which kept the fire up when the engine was traveling. When the engine was stationary # 1072 ; blower was used, making # 1072 ; blast from # 1072 ; pealing # 1086 ; f perforated pipe into which steam was directed. # 1040 ; further development, the multitubular boiler, was patented by Henry Booth, financial officer of the Liverpool A ; Manchester, in 1827. It was incorporated by Stephenson in the Rocket, after much test and mistake in doing the collets of the Cu tubes to give water-tight articulations in the tubing home bases. After 1830 the steam engine assumed its familiar signifier, with the cylinders level or somewhat inclined at the smokebox terminal and the fireman s base at the firebox terminal. Equally shortly as the cylinders and axles were n # 1086 ; longer fixed in or under the boiler itself, it became necessary to supply # 1072 ; frame to keep the assorted constituents together. The saloon frame was used on the early British engines and exported to America ; the Americans kept # 1089 ; # 1086 ; the bar-frame design, which evolved from shaped Fe to project steel building, with the cylinders mounted outside the frame. The saloon frame was superseded in Britain by the home base frame, with cylinders inside the frame, spring suspension ( spiral or laminated ) for the frames and axleboxes ( greased bearings ) to keep the axles. As British railroads about all produced their ain designs, # 1072 ; great many characteristic types developed. Some designs with cylinders inside the frame transmitted the gesture to crank-shaped axles instead than to bizarre pivots on the exterior of the thrust wheels ; there were besides compound engines, with the steam passing from # 1072 ; first cylinder or cylinders to another set of larger 1s. When steel came into usage for edifice boilers after 1860, higher operating force per unit areas became possible. By the terminal of the 19th century 175 pounds per square inch ( 12 saloon ) was common, with 200 pounds per square inchs ( 13.8 saloon ) for compound engines. This rose to 250 pounds per square inchs ( 17.2 saloon ) subsequently in the steam epoch. ( By contrast, Stephenson s Rocketmerely developed 50 pounds per square inchs, 3.4 saloon. ) In the l890s express engines had cylinders up to 20 inches ( 51 centimeter ) in diameter with # 1072 ; 26 inch ( 66 centimeter ) shot. Later diameters increased to 32 inches ( 81 centimeter ) in topographic points like the USA, where there was more room, and engines and turn overing stock in general were built larger. Supplies of fuel and H2O were carried on # 1072 ; separate stamp, pulled behind the locomotor. The first armored combat vehicle engine transporting its ain supplies, appeared tn the I830s ; on the continent of Europe they were. bewilderingly called stamp engines. Separate stamps continued to be common because they made possible much longer tallies. While the fireman stoked the firebox, the boiler had to be replenished with H2O by some agencies under his control ; early engines had pumps running off the axle, but at that place was ever the trouble that the engine had to be running. The injector was invented in 1859. Steam from the boiler ( or recently, exhaus steam ) went through # 1072 ; conic jet and lifted the H2O into the boiler against the greater force per unit area there through energy imparted in condensation. # 1040 ; clap ( non-return valve ) retained the steam in the boiler. Early engines burned wood in America, but coal in Britain. As British railroad Acts began to include punishments for emanation of soiled black fume, many engines were built after 1829 to fire coke. Under Matthetty Kirtley on the Midland Railway the brick arch in the firebox and deflector home bases were developed to direct the hot gases from the coal to go through over the fires, so that # 1072 ; comparatively clean blast came out of the chimney and the cheaper fuel could be burnt. After 1860 this simple expedient was univers # 1072 ; 11 # 1091 ; adopted. Fireboxs were protected by being surrounded with # 1072 ; H2O jacket ; stays about four inches ( 10 centimeter ) apart supported the interior firebox from the outer. Steam was distributed to the Pistons by agencies of valves. The valve cogwheel provided for the valves to bring out the ports at different parts of the shot, so changing the cut-off to supply for enlargement of steam already admitted to the cylinders and to give lead or padding by allowing the steam in approximately 0.8 inch ( 3 millimeter ) from the terminal of the shot to get down the reciprocating gesture once more. The valve cogwheel besides provided for change by reversaling by acknowledging steam to the opposite side of the Piston. Long-lap or long-travel valves gave wide-open ports for the fumes even when early cut- # 1086 ; ff was used, whereas with short travel at early cut-off, fumes and emanation gaps became smaller so that at velocities of over 60 miles per hour ( 96 kilometers per hour ) tierce of the ehergy of the steam was expanded merely acquiring in and out of the cylinder. This simple fact was non universal1y accepted until about 1925 because it was felt that excessively much excess wear would happen with long-travel valve layouts. Valv # 1077 ; operation on most early British engines was by Stephenson nexus gesture, dependant on two flakes on the drive # 1072 ; # 1093 ; 1 # 1077 ; connected by rods to the top and underside of an enlargement nexus. # 1040 ; block in the nexus, connected to the change by reversaling lever under the control of the driver, imparted the reciprocating gesture T # 1086 ; the valve spindle. With the block at the top of the nexus, the engine would be in full forward cogwheel and steam would be admitted to the cylinder for possibly 75 % of the stoke. As the engine was notched up by traveling the lever back over its serrations ( like the handbrake lever of # 1072 ; # 1089 ; # 1072 ; R ) , the cut-off was shortened ; in mid-gear there was no steam admittance to the cylinder and with the block at the underside of the nexus the engine was in full contrary. Walschaert s valvegear, invented in 1844 and in general usage after 1890, allowed more precise accommodation and easier operation for the driver. An bizarre rod worked from # 1072 ; return grouch by the drive axle operated the enlargement nexus ; the block imparted the motion to the valve spindle, but the motion was modified by # 1072 ; combination lever from # 1072 ; crosshead on the Piston rod. Steam was collected every bit dry as possible along the top of the boiler in # 1072 ; perforated pipe, or from # 1072 ; point above the boiler in # 1072 ; dome, and passed to # 1072 ; regulator which controlled its distribution. The most dramatic development of steam engines for heavy draw and high velocity tallies was the debut of superheating. # 1040 ; return tubing, taking the steam back towards the firebox and frontward once more to # 1072 ; heading at the front terminal of the boiler through an hypertrophied flue-tube, was invented by Wilhelm Schmidt of Cassel, and modified by other interior decorators. The first usage of such equipment in Britain was in 1906 and instantly the nest eggs in fuel and particularly H2O were singular. Steam at 175 pounds per square inchs, for illustration, was generated saturated at 371F ( 188 # 1057 ; ) ; by adding 200F ( 93C ) of superheat, the steam expanded much more readily in the cylinders, so that twentieth-century engines were able t o work at high velocities at cut-offs every bit short as 15 % . Steel Surs, glass fiber boiler lagging, long-lap Piston valves, direct steam transition and superheating wholly contributed to the last stage of steam locomotor public presentation. Steam from the boiler was besides for other intents. Steam sanding was introduced for grip in 1887 on Thursday Midland Railway, to better adhesion better than gravitation sanding, which frequently blew off. Continuous brakes were operated by # 1072 ; vacuity created on the engine or by # 1089 ; # 1086 ; mpressed air supplied by # 1072 ; steam pump. Steam heat was piped to the passenger cars, waterless steam dynamos [ generators ] provided electric visible radiation. Steam engines are classified harmonizing to the figure of wheels. Except for little engines used in marshalling # 1091 ; # 1072 ; rds, all modern steam engines had taking wheels on a pivoted bogey or truck to assist steer them around # 1089 ; urves. The tracking wheels helped transport the weight of the firebox. For many old ages the American criterion engine was a 4-4-0, holding four prima wheels, four drive wheels and no tracking wheels. The celebrated Civil War engine, the General, was # 1072 ; 4-4-0, as was the New York Central EngineNitrogenO999, which set # 1072 ; velocity record # 1086 ; 1 112.5 miles per hour ( 181 kilometers per hour ) in 1893. Later, # 1072 ; common cargo locomotor constellation was the Mikadotype, # 1072 ; 2-8-2. # 1040 ; Continental categorization counts axles alternatively # 1086 ; f wheels, and another alteration gives drive wheels # 1072 ; missive of the alphabet, so the 2-8-2 would be 1-4-1 in France and IDI in Germany. The largest steam engines were articulated, with two sets of thrust wheels and cylinders utilizing # 1072 ; common boiler. The sets # 1086 ; f thrust wheels were separated by # 1072 ; pivot ; otherwise such # 1072 ; big engine could non hold negotiated curves. The largest of all time built was the Union Pacific Big # 1042 ; o # 1091 ;, # 1072 ; 4-8-8-4, used to hale cargo in the mountains of the western United States. Even though it was articulated it could non run on crisp curves. It weighed about 600 dozenss, compared to less than five dozenss for Stephenson s Rocket. Steam engines could take # 1072 ; batch of difficult usage, but they are now disused, replaced by electric and particularly diesel-electric engines. Because of heat losingss and uncomplete burning of fuel, their thermic effici # 1077 ; nc # 1091 ; was seldom more than 6 % . Diesel engines Diesel engines are most normally diesel-electric. # 1040 ; diesel engine thrusts # 1072 ; dynamo [ generator ] which provides power for electric motors which turn the thrust wheels, normally through # 1072 ; pinion gear driving # 1072 ; pealing cogwheel on the axle. The first diesel-electric propelled rail auto was built in 1913, and after World War 2 they replaced steam engines wholly, except where electrification of railroads is economical. Diesel engines have several advantages over steam engines. They are immediately ready for service, and can be shut down wholly for short # 1088 ; eriods, whereas it takes some clip to heat the H2O in the steam engine, particularly in cold conditions, and the fire must be kept up while the steam engine is on standby. The Diesel can travel farther without serving, as it consumes n # 1086 ; H2O ; its thermic efficiency is four times every bit high, which means farther nest eggs of fuel. Acceleration and high-speed running are smoother with # 1072 ; Diesel, which means less wear on tracks and roadbed. The economic grounds for turning to Diesels were overpowering after the war, particularly in North America, where the railroads were in direct competition with route draw over really long distances. Electric grip The first electric-powered rail auto was built in 1834, but early electric autos were battery powered, and the batteries were heavy and needed frequent recharging. # 1058 ; # 1086 ; d # 1072 ; # 1091 ; # 1077 ; 1 # 1077 ; # 1089 ; tri # 1089 ; trains are non self-contained, which means that they get their power from overhead wires or from # 1072 ; 3rd rail. The power for the grip motors is collected from the 3rd rail by agencies of # 1072 ; shoe or from the overhead wires by # 1072 ; pantograph. Electric trains are the most # 1077 ; # 1089 ; # 1086 ; nomical to run, provided that traffic is heavy plenty to refund electrification of the railroad. Where trains run less frecuentl # 1091 ; over long distances the cost of electrification is prohibitory. DC systems have been used as opposed to # 1040 ; # 1057 ; because lighter grip motors can be used, but this requires power substations with rectifiers to change over the power to D # 1057 ; from the # 1040 ; # 1057 ; of the commercial brinies. ( High electromotive force DC power is hard to convey over long distances. ) The latest development of electric trains has been the installing of rectifiers in the autos themselves and the usage of the same # 1040 ; # 1057 ; frequence as the commercial brinies ( 50 Hz in Europe, 60 Hz in North America ) , which means that fewer substations are necessary. Railway systems The foundation of # 1072 ; modern railroad system is track which does non deteriorate under emphasis of traffic. Standard path in Britain comprises a flat-bottom subdivision of rail weighing 110 lb per pace ( 54 kilogram per meter ) carried on 2112 cross-sleepers per stat mi ( 1312 per kilometer ) . Originally creosote-impregnated wood slumberers [ cross-ties ] were used, but they are now made of post-stressed concrete. This enables the rail to convey the force per unit area, possibly every bit much as 20 tons/in2 ( 3150 kg/cm2 ) fromthe little country of contact with the wheel, to the land below the path formation where it is reduced through the exclusive home base and the slumberer to about 400 pounds per square inchs ( 28 kg/cm2 ) . In soft land, thick polythene sheets are by and large placed under the ballast to forestall pumping of slurry under the weight of trains. The tracks are tilted towards one another on # 1072 ; 1 in 20 Shining Path # 1086 ; # 1088 ; # 1077 ; . Steel rails tnay last 15 or 20 old ages in traffic, but to protract the undisturbed life of path still longer, experiments have been carried out with paved concrete path ( PAC # 1058 ; ) laid by # 1072 ; slip paver similar to concrete main road building in strengthened concrete. The foundations, if new, are similar to those for # 1072 ; motorway. If on the otherhand, bing railroad formation is to be used, the old ballast is s # 1077 ; # 1072 ; 1 # 1077 ; vitamin D with # 1072 ; bitumen emulsion before using the concrete which carries the path fasteners glued in with cement grout or epoxy rosin. The path is made resilient by usage of rubber-bonded cork waddings 0.4 inch ( 10 millimeter ) midst. British Railways purchases rails in 60 foot ( 18.3 m ) lengths which are shop-welded into 600 foot ( 183 m ) lengths and so welded on site into uninterrupted welded path with pressure-relief points at intervals of several stat mis. The contfnuotls welded tracks make for # 1072 ; steadier and less noisy drive for the rider and cut down the tractive attempt. Signing The 2nd of import factor lending to safe rail travel is the system of signalling. Originally railways relied on the clip interval to guarantee the safety of a sequence of trains, but the defects quickly manifested themselves, and a infinite interval, or the block system, was adopted, although it was non enforced lawfully on British rider lines until the Regulation of Railways Act of 1889. Semaphore signals became universally adopted on running lines and the engagement # 1086 ; f points [ switches ] and signals ( normally accomplished automatically by tappets ) to forestall conflicting motions being signalled was besides # 1072 ; demand of the 1889 # 1040 ; # 1089 ; t. Lock-and-block signalling, which ensured # 1072 ; safe sequence of motions by electric cheques, was introduced on the London, Chatham and Dover Railway in 1875. Path circuiting, by which the presence of # 1072 ; train is detected by an electric current passing from one rail to another through the wheels and axles, day of the months from 1870 when William Robinson applied it in the United States. In England the Great Eastern Railway introduced power operation of points and signals at Spitaifields goods yard in 1899, and three old ages subsequently track-circuit operation of powered signals was in operation on 30 stat mis ( 48 kilometer ) of the London and Sout Western Railway chief line. Day colour light signals, controlled automatically by the trains through path circuits, were installed on the Liverpool Overhead Railway in 1920 and four-aspect twenty-four hours color visible radiations ( ruddy, xanthous, dual yellow and green ) were provided on Southern Railway routes from 1926 onwards. These enable drivers of high-velocity trains to hold # 1072 ; warning two block subdivisions in front of # 1072 ; possible demand to halt. With path circuiting it became usual to demo the presence # 1086 ; f vehicles on # 1072 ; path diagram in the signal cabin which allowed paths to be controlled remotely by agencies of electric relays. Today, panel operation of considerable stretches of railroad is common- # 1088 ; l # 1072 ; # 1089 ; # 1077 ; ; at Rugby, for case, # 1072 ; signalman can command the points at # 1072 ; station 44 stat mis ( 71 kilometer ) off, and the signalbox at London Bridge controls motions on the busiest 150 track-miles of British Rail. By the terminal of the I980s, the 1500 stat mis ( 241 # 1054 ; km ) of the Southern Region of British Rail are to be controlled from 13 signalboxes. In modern panel installings the trains are non merely shown on the path diagram as they move from one subdivision to another, but the train designation figure appears electronically in each subdivision. # 1057 ; # 1086 ; mputer-assisted train description, automatic train R # 1077 ; porting and, at Stationss such as London Bridge, operation of platform indexs, is now usual. Whether points are operated manually or by an electric point motor, they have to be prevented from traveling while a train is go throughing over them and confronting points have to be locked, # 1072 ; nd # 1088 ; roved T # 1086 ; # 1068 ; # 1077 ; l # 1086 ; # 1089 ; k # 1077 ; vitamin D ( # 1086 ; R detected ) before Thursday # 1077 ; relevant signal can allow # 1072 ; train motion. The blades of the points have to be closed accurately ( # 1054 ; .16 inch or 0.4 centimeter is the maximal tolerance ) so as to debar any possibility of # 1072 ; wheel flange dividing the point and taking to # 1072 ; derailment. Other signalling developments of recent old ages include wholly automatic operation of simple point layouts, such as the dual crossing over at the Bank end point of the British Rails s Waterloo and City belowground railroad. On London # 1058 ; ransport s belowground system # 1072 ; fictile axial rotation operates junctions harmonizing to the timetable by agencies of coded punched holes, and on the Victoria Line trains are operated automatically one time the driver has pressed two buttons to bespeak his preparedness to get down. # 1053 ; # 1077 ; besides acts as the guard, commanding the gap # 1086 ; f Thursday # 1077 ; doors, closed circuit telecasting giving him # 1072 ; position along the train. The trains are controlled ( for acceleration and braking ) by coded urges transmitted through the running rails to induction spirals mounted on the forepart of the train. The absence of codification urges cuts off the current and applies the brakes ; driving and velocity control is c overed by bid musca volitanss in which # 1072 ; frequence of 100 Hz corresponds to one stat mi per hr ( 1.6 kilometers per hour ) , and l5 kilohertz shuts off the current. Brake applications are so controlled that trains halt smoothly and with great truth at the coveted topographic point on platforms. Occupation of the path circuit in front by # 1072 ; train automatically stops the undermentioned train, which can non have # 1072 ; codification. On # 1042 ; ritish chief lines an automatic warning system is being installed by which the driver receives in his # 1089 ; # 1072 ; b # 1072 ; ocular and hearable warning of go throughing # 1072 ; distant signal at cautiousness ; if he does non admit the warning the brakes are applied automatically. This is accomplished by magnetic initiation between # 1072 ; magnetic unit placed in the path and actuated harmonizing to the signal facet, and # 1072 ; unit on the train. Train control In England train control began in l909 on the Midland Railway, peculiarly to hasten the motion # 1086 ; f coal trains and to see that guards and enginemen were relieved at the terminal of their displacement and were non called upon to work inordinate overtime. Comprehensive train control systems, depending on complete diagrams of the path layout and records of the place of engines, crews and turn overing stock, were developed for the whole of Britain, the Southern Railway being the last to follow it during World War 2, holding hitherto given # 1072 ; great trade of duty to signalmen for the ordinance of trains. Refinements # 1086 ; f control include progress traffic information ( ATI ) in which information is passed from pace to yard by telex giving types of waggon, waggon figure, route codification, particulars # 1086 ; f the burden, finish station and consignee. In l972 British Rail decided to follow # 1072 ; computerized cargo information and traffic control system known as TOPS ( entire operations treating system ) which was developed over eight old ages by the Southern Pacific company in the USA. Although # 1072 ; great trade of rail 1r # 1072 ; ffi # 1089 ; in Britain is handled by block trains from point of beginning to finish, about onefifth of the originating tunnage is less than a train-load. This means that waggons must be sorted on their journey. In Britain there are about 600 terminal points on a 12,000 stat mi web whitch is served by over 2500 cargo trains made up of changing mixtures of 249,000 waggons and 3972 engines, of enchantress 333 are electric. This requires the velocity of computation and the information storage and categorization capacity of the modern computing machine, whitch has to be linked to points covering with or bring forthing traffic troughout the system.The computing machine input, enchantress is by punched cards, screens inside informations of lading or droping of waggons and their motions in trains, the composing of trains and their goings from and reachings at paces, and the whereabouts of engines. The computing machine end product include s information on the balanse of engines at terminals and paces, with specifics of when maintenanse scrutinies are due, the Numberss of empty and laden waggons, with aggregative weight and brake forse, and wheder their motion is on clip, the location of empty waggons and a prognosis of those that will go available, and the Numberss of trains at any location, with corporate train weigts and single inside informations of the constituent waggons. A closer cheque on what is go oning troughoud the system is therefore provided, with the place of cargos in theodolite, holds in motion, holds in droping waggons by clients, and the capasity of the system to manage future traffic among the information readily available. The computing machine has a constitutional self-check on incorrect input information. Freight managing The merry-go-round system enables coal for power Stationss to be loaded into hopper waggons at a pit without the train being stopped, and at the power station the train is hauled round a cringle at less than 2mph ( 3.2 kilometers per hour ) , a trigger devise automatically droping the waggons without the train being stopped. The agreements besides provide for automatic deliberation of the tonss. Other bulk tonss can be dealt with in the same manner. Bulk pulverizations, including cement, can be loaded and discharged pneumatically, utilizing either R # 1072 ; i1 waggons or containers. Iron ore is carried in 100 ton gross waggons ( 72 dozenss of warhead ) whose matching cogwheel is designed to pivot, so that waggons can be turned upside down for discharge without decoupling from their train. Particular new waves take palletized tonss of assorted ware or such merchandises as fertiliser, the new wave doors being designed so that all parts of the inside can be reached by # 1072 ; fork-lift truck. British railroad companies began constructing their stocks of containers in 1927, and by 1950 they had the largest stock of big containers in Western Europe. In 1962 British Rail decided to utilize International Standards Organisation sizes, 8 foot ( 2,4 m ) broad by 8 ft high and 1ÃŽ , 20, 30 and 40 foot ( 3.1, 6.1, 9.2 and 12.2 m ) long. The Freightliner service of container trains uses 62.5 foot ( 19.1 m ) level waggons with air-operated phonograph record brakes in sets à ®f five and was inaugurated in 1965. At terminals Drott pneumatic-tyred Cranes were at first provided but rail-mounted Goliath Cranes are now provided. Cars are handled by double-tier waggons. The British auto industry is # 1072 ; large user of # 1089 ; om # 1088 ; # 1072 ; n # 1091 ; trains, which are operated for # 1072 ; individual client. Both Ford and Chrysler use them to interchange parts between specializer mills # 1072 ; nd the railroad therefore becomes an extension of mill conveyance. Company trains frequent1 # 1091 ; consist of waggons owned by the bargainer ; there are about 20,000 on British railroads, the oil industry, for illustration, supplying most # 1086 ; f the armored combat vehicles it needs to transport 21 million dozenss of crude oil merchandises by rail each twelvemonth despite competition from grapevines. Gravel dredged from the shallow seas is another developing beginning of rail traffic. It is moved in 76 ton tonss by 100 ton gross hopper waggons and is either discharged on to belt conveyors to travel into the storage bins at the finish or, in another system, it is unloaded by truck-mounted discharging machines. Cryogenic ( really low temperature ) merchandises are besides transported by rail in high capacity insulated waggons. Such merchandises include liquid O and liquid N which are taken from # 1072 ; cardinal works to strategically-placed railheads where the liquefied gas is transferred to route oilers for the journey to its ultimate finish. Switchyards Groups of screening turnouts, in which waggons [ freight autos ] can be arranged in order s # 1086 ; that they can be detached from the train at their finish with the least possible hold, are called marshalling paces in Britain and categorization paces or switchyards in North America. The work is done by little engines called whippers or shunters, which move cuts of trains from one siding to another until the coveted order is achieved. As railroads became more complicated in their system layouts in the 19th century, the range and volume of necessary sorting became greater, and agencies of cut downing the clip and labors involved were sought. ( # 1042 ; # 1091 ; 1930, for every 100 stat mis that freight trains were run in Britain there were 75 stat mis of shunting. ) The sorting of coal waggons for return to the pits had been assisted by gravitation every bit early as 1859, in the turnouts at Tyne dock on the North Eastern Railway ; in 1873 the London A ; North Western Railway sorted traffic to and from Liverpool on the Edge Hill grid chainss : groups of turnouts laid out on the incline of # 1072 ; hill where gravitation provided the motor power, the steepest gradient being 1 in 60 ( one pes of lift in 60 pess of siding ) . Chain retarding forces were used for braking he wagons. # 1040 ; shunter uncoupled the waggons in cuts for the assorted finishs and each cut was turned into the appropriate turnout. Some gravitation paces relied on # 1072 ; codification of whistlings to rede the signalman what road ( siding ) was required. In the late 19th century the bulge pace was introduced to supply gravitation where there was n # 1086 ; natural incline of the land. In this the trains were pushed up an unreal hill with # 1072 ; gradient of possibly 1 in 80 and the cuts were humped down # 1072 ; somewhat steeper gradient on the other side. The separate cuts would turn over down the selected turnout in the fan or balloon of turnouts, which would # 1077 ; nd in # 1072 ; little upward incline to help in the fillet of the waggons. The chief agencies of halting the waggons, nevertheless, were trainmans called shunters who had to run aboard the waggons and use the brakes at the right clip. This was unsafe and needed inordinate work force. Such paces # 1072 ; # 1088 ; # 1088 ; # 1077 ; # 1072 ; R # 1077 ; d all over North America and north-east England and began to be adopted elsewhere in England. Much inventiveness was devoted to agencies of halting the waggons ; # 1072 ; German house, Frohlich, came up with # 1072 ; hydraulicly operated retarder which clasped the wheel of the waggon as it went by, to decelerate it down to the sum the operator throught n # 1077 ; # 1089 ; # 1077 ; ssar # 1091 ; . An wholly new construct came with Whitemoor pace at March, near Cambridge, opened by the London A ; North Eastern Railway in l929 to concentrate traffic to and from East Anglian finishs. When trains arrived in one of 10 response turnouts # 1072 ; shunter examined the waggon labels and prepared # 1072 ; cut card demoing how the train should be sorted into turnouts. This was sent to the control tower by pneumatic tubing ; there the points [ switches ] for the 40 sorted turnouts were preset in conformity with the cut card ; information for several trains could be stored in # 1072 ; simple pin and membranophone device. The bulge was approached by # 1072 ; class of 1 in 80. On the far side was # 1072 ; short stretch of 1 in 18 to speed up the waggons, followed by 70 paces { 64 m ) at 1 in 60 where the paths divided into four, each equipped with # 1072 ; Frohlich retarder. Then the four paths spread out to four balloons of 10 paths each, consisting 95 paces ( 87 m ) of degree path followed by 233 paces ( 213 m ) falling at 1 in 200, with the staying 380 paces ( 348 m ) degree. The points were moved in the preset sequence by path circuits actuated by the waggons, but the operators had to gauge the effects on waggons velocity of the retarders, depending to # 1072 ; degree on whether the retarders were lubricating oil or oil lubricated. Pushed by an 0-8-0 small-wheeled shunting engine at 1.5 to 2 miles per hour ( 2.5 to 3 kilometers per hour ) , # 1072 ; train of 70 waggons could be sorted in seven proceedingss. The pace had # 1072 ; throughput of about 4000 waggons # 1072 ; twenty-four hours. The sorting turnouts were allocated: figure one for Bury St Edmunds, two for Ipswich, and s # 1086 ; Forth. Number 31 was for waggons with Sur fasteners which might be ripped off by retarders, which were non used on that siding. Sidings 32 T # 1086 ; 40 were for traffic to be dropped at wayside Stationss ; for these turnouts there was an extra bulge for screening these waggons in station order. Apart from the sorting turnouts, there were an engine route, # 1072 ; brake new wave route, # 1072 ; cripple route for waggons necessitating fix, and reassign route to three turnouts functioning # 1072 ; tranship shed, where little cargos non make fulling full waggons could be sorted. British Rail built # 1072 ; series of paces at strategic points ; the paces normally had two phases of retarders, recently electropneumatically operated, to command wagon velocity. In lateryards electronic equipment was used to mensurate the weight of each waggon and gauge its turn overing opposition. By feeding this information into # 1072 ; computing machine, # 1072 ; suited velocity for the waggon could be determined and the retarder operatedautomatically to give the coveted sum of braking. These anticipations did non ever turn out dependable. At Tinsley, opened in l965, with 11 response roads and 53 screening turnouts in eight balloons, the Dowty waggon velocity control system was installed. The Dowty system uses many little units ( 20,000 at Tinsley ) consisting hydraulic random-access memories on the interior of the rail, less than # 1072 ; wagon length apart. The rim of the wheel depresses the random-access memory, which returns after the wheel has passed. # 1040 ; speed-sensing device determines whether the waggon is traveling excessively fast from thehump ; if the velocity is excessively fast the random-access memory automatically has # 1072 ; retarding action. Certain of the units are booster-retarders ; if the waggon is traveling excessively easy, # 1072 ; hydraulic supply enablesthe random-access memory to speed up the waggon. There are 25 secondary sorting turnouts at Tinsley to which waggons are sent over # 1072 ; secondary bulge by the booster-retarders. If single unitsfail the random-access memories can be replaced. An automatic telephone exchange links # 1072 ; ll the traffic and administrative offices in the pace with the railroad control # 1086 ; ffi # 1089 ; # 1077 ; , Sheffield Midland Station and the local steel mills ( chief beginning of traffic ) . Two-w # 1072 ; # 1091 ; loudspeaker systems are available through all the chief points in the pace, and wireless telephone equipment is used T # 1086 ; speak to enginemen. Fitters keeping the retarders have walki # 1077 ; -talkie equipment. The information from shunters about the cuts and how many waggons in each, together with finish, is conveyed by particular informations transmittal equipment, # 1072 ; punched tape being produced to feed into the point control system for each train over the bulge. As British Railwaies have departed from the wagon-load system there is less employment for marshalling paces. Freightliner services, block coal trains from pit direct to power Stationss or to char concentration terminals, company trains and other specialised cargo traffic developments obviate the demand for sing marshalIing paces. Other factors are competition from motor conveyance, shutting of wayside cargo terminals and of many little coal paces. Modern rider service In Britain # 1072 ; web of metropolis tocity services operates at velocities of up to 100 miles per hour ( 161 kilometers per hour ) and at regular hourly intervals, or 30 minute intervals on such paths as London to Birmingham. On some lines the velocity is shortly to be raised to 125 miles per hour ( 201 kilometers per hour ) with high velocity Diesel trains whos # 1077 ; paradigm has been shown to be capable of 143 miles per hour ( 230 kilometer H ) . With the advanced rider train ( APT ) now under development, velocities of 150 miles per hour ( 241 kilometers per hour ) are envisaged. The Italians are developing # 1072 ; system capable of velocities nearing 200 miles per hour ( 320 kilometers per hour ) while the Japanese and the Gallic already run rider trains at velocities of about 150mph ( 241 kilometers per hour ) . The APT will be powered either by electric motors or by gas turbines, and it can utilize bing path because of its pendulum suspension which enables it to list over when going unit of ammunition curves. With stock hauled by # 1072 ; conventional engine, the London to Glasgow electric service holds the European record for frequence velocity over # 1072 ; long distance. When the APT is in service, it is expected that the London to Glasgow journey clip of five hours will be reduced to 2.5 hours. In Europe # 1072 ; figure of combined activities organized through the International Union af Railways included the Trans-Europe-Express ( TEE ) web of high-velocity rider trains, # 1072 ; similar cargo service, and # 1072 ; web of railway- # 1072 ; ssociated route services marketed as Europabus. Mountain railroads Cable conveyance has ever been associated with hills and mountains. In the late 1700s and early 1800s the wagonways used for traveling coal from mines to river or sea ports were hauled by overseas telegram up and down inclined paths. Stationary steam engines built near the top of the slope drove the overseas telegrams, which were passed around # 1072 ; membranophone connected to the steam engine and were carried on rollers along the path. Sometimes cable-worked wagonways were self-activating if laden waggons worked downhill, f # 1086 ; R they could draw up the igniter empty waggons. Even after George Stephenson perfected the going steam engine to work the early rider railroads of the 1820s and 1830s overseas telegram draw was sometimes used to assist trains mount the steeper gradients, and overseas telegram working continued to be used for many steeply-graded industrial wagonways throughout the 1800s. Today # 1072 ; few cable-worked slopes survive at industrial sites and for such alone signifiers of conveyance as the San Francisco tramway [ tram ] system. Cable railwaies The first true mountain railroads utilizing steam engines running on # 1072 ; railway path equipped for rack and pinion ( gear ) propulsion were built up Mount Washington, USA, in 1869 and Mount Rigi, Switzerland, in 1871. The latter was the innovator of what today has become the most extended mountain conveyance system in the universe. Much of Switzerland consists of high mountains, some transcending l4,000 foot ( 4250 m ) . From this development in mountain conveyance other methods were developed and in the undermentioned 20 old ages until the bend of the century funicular railroads were built up # 1072 ; figure of mountain inclines. Most worked on # 1072 ; similar rule to the drop lift, with two autos connected by overseas telegram equilibrating each other. Because of the length of some lines, one stat mi ( 1.6 kilometer ) or more in # 1072 ; few instances, normally merely # 1072 ; individual path is provided over most of the path, but a short length of dual path is laid down at the halfway point where the autos cross each other. The shift of autos through the double-track subdivision is achieved automatically by utilizing double-flanged wheels on one side of each # 1089 ; Ar and flangeless wheels on the other so that one auto is ever guided through the righthand path and the other through the left-hand path. Small spreads are left in the switch rails to let the overseas telegram T # 1086 ; pass through without hindering the wheels. Cable railwaies vary in abruptness harmonizing to location and may hold soft curves ; some are non steeper than 1 in 10 ( 10per cent ) , others reach # 1072 ; maximal abruptness of 88 per cent.On the less steep lines the autos are small different from, but smaller than, ordinary railroad passenger cars. On the steeper lines the autos have # 1072 ; figure of separate compartments, stepped up one from another so that while floors and seats are level a compartment at the higher terminal may be I0 or even 15 foot ( 3 or 4 m ) higher than the lowest compartment at the other terminal. Some of the bigger autos seat 100 riders, but most carry fewer than this. Braking and safety are of critical importance on steep mountain lines to forestall breaking awaies. Cables are on a regular basis inspected and renewed as necessary but merely in instance the overseas telegram breaks a figure of braking systems are provided to halt the auto rapidly. On the steepest lines ordinary wheel brakes would non hold any consequence and powerful spring-loaded grippers on the # 1089 ; # 1072 ; R underframe act on the tracks every bit shortly as the overseas telegram becomes slack. When # 1072 ; overseas telegram is due for reclamation the chance is taken to prove the braking system by cutting the overseas telegram # 1072 ; nd look intoing whether the autos halt within the prescribed distance. This operation is done without riders The capacity of funicular railroads is limited to the two autos, which usually do non go at m # 1086 ; R # 1077 ; than approximately 5 to 1 # 1054 ; miles per hour ( 8 to 16 kilometers per hour ) . Some lines are divided 1nt # 1086 ; subdivisions with braces # 1086 ; f autos covering shorter lengths. Rack railroads The rack and pinion system rule day of the months from the pioneering yearss of the steam engine between 1812 and 1820 which coincided with the debut of Fe tracks. 0ne applied scientist, Blenkinsop, did non believe that Fe wheels on engines would hold sufficient clasp on Fe tracks, and on the wagonway functioning Middleton pit near Leeds he laid an excess toothed rail alongside one of the ordinary tracks, which engaged with # 1072 ; gear on the engine. The Middleton line was comparatively flat and it was shortly found that on railroads with merely soft climbs the rack system was non needed. If there was adequate weight on the locomotor drive wheels they would grip the tracks by clash. Little more was heard of rack railroads until the 1860s, when they began to be developed for mountain railroads in the USA and Switzerland. The rack system for the last 100 old ages has used an extra Centre toothed rail which meshes with gears under engines and managers. There are four basic types of rack varying in inside informations: the Riggenbach type looks like # 1072 ; steel ladder, and the Abt and Strub types use # 1072 ; perpendicular rail with dentitions machined out of the top. 0ne or other of these systems is used on most rack lines but they are safe merely on gradients n # 1086 ; steeper than 1 in 4 ( 25 per cent ) . One line in Switzerland up Mount Pilatus has # 1072 ; gradient of 1 in 2 ( 48 per cent ) and uses the Locher rack with teeth cut on both sides of the rack rail alternatively of on top, prosecuting with braces of horizontally-mounted gears on each side, drivihg and braking the railway cars. The first steam engines for steep mountain lines had perpendicular boilers but ulterior engines had boilers mounted at an angle to the chief frame so that they were virtually horizontal when on the ascent. Today steam engines have all but disappeared from most mountain lines # 1072 ; nd survive in regular service on merely one line in Switzerland, on Britain s lone rack line up Snowdon in North Wales, and # 1072 ; smattering of others. Most of the balance have been electrified or # 1072 ; few converted to diesel. Trams and trolley coachs The early railroads used in mines with four-wheel trucks and wooden beams for tracks were known as ropewaies. From this came the word ropeway for # 1072 ; four-wheel rail vehicle. The universe s first street R # 1072 ; i1w # 1072 ; # 1091 ; , or tramway, was built in New York in 1832 ; it was # 1072 ; stat mi ( 1,6 kilometers ) long and known as the New York A ; Harlem Railroad. There were two horse-drawn # 1089 ; # 1072 ; R, each keeping 30 people. The one stat mi path had grown to four stat mis ( 6.4 kilometer ) by 1834, and autos were running every 15 proceedingss ; the ropeway thought spread rapidly and in the 1880s there were more than 18,000 Equus caballus ropewaies in the USA and over 3000 stat mis ( 4830 kilometer ) of path. The edifice # 1086 ; f ropewaies, or tram systems, required the lease of building contracts and the acquisition of right-of-way easemerits, and was an country of political backing and corruptness in many cit # 1091 ; authoritiess. The advantage of the Equus caballus ropeway over the Equus caballus coach was that steel wheels on steel tracks gave # 1072 ; smoother sit and less clash. # 1040 ; Equus caballus could hale on tracks twice every bit much weight # 1072 ; s on # 1072 ; roadway. Furthermore, the ropewaies had brakes, but coachs still relied on the weight of the Equus caballuss to halt the vehicle. The American illustration was followed in Europe and the first ropeway in Paris was opened in 1853 suitably styled the American Railway . The first line in Britain was opened in Birkenhead in 1860. It was built by George Francis Train, an American, who besides built three short ropewaies in London in 1861: the first # 1086 ; f these R # 1072 ; n from # 1052 ; # 1072 ; rbl # 1077 ; Arch for # 1072 ; short distance along the Bayswater Road. The lines used # 1072 ; type of measure rail which stood up from the route surface and interfered with other traffic, so they were taken up within # 1072 ; twelvemonth. London s more lasting ropewaies began running in 1870, but Liverpool had # 1072 ; 1in # 1077 ; working in November 1869. Rails which could be laid flush with the route surface were used for these lines. # 1040 ; steam ropeway was tried out in Cincinatti, Ohio in 1859 and in London in 1873 ; the steam ropeway was non widely successful because paths built for Equus caballus ropewaies could non stand up T # 1086 ; th # 1077 ; weight of # 1072 ; locomotor. The solution to this job was found in the overseas telegram # 1089 ; # 1072 ; r. Cables, driven by powerful stationary steam engines at the terminal of the path, were run in conduits below the roadway, with an fond regard go throughing down from the ropeway through # 1072 ; slot in the roadway to grip the overseas telegram, and the auto itself weighed n # 1086 ; more than # 1072 ; Equus caballus

ACT What Should You Do

Low GPA but High SAT/ACT What Should You Do SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Say you have done the near-impossible, and gotten an amazing SAT score of 2200 or higher or an ACT score of 32 or higher. Many high school students across the country are probably jealous of you! But what if your GPA is much lower – a 3.0, or even a 2.0? Do you still have a shot at top colleges? What will admissions officers think about you? Read on to find out what to do with a low GPA, high SAT/ACT score application. That high score could be worth a lot more than you think! The Good News Your high SAT/ACT score proves your academic abilities and intellectual aptitude. While it’s possible to have a high GPA without being super smart (since some schools inflate GPAs), it’s almost impossible to get a high SAT/ACT score if you don’t have significant intellectual ability. Colleges know this. Since the SAT and ACT are national, standardized tests, if you do well on them you'll stack up very favorably compared with the entire applicant pool. For example, if you have a 34 ACT, that means you scored higher than 99% of the country. Having a 4.0 GPA, on the other hand, doesn’t allow colleges to easily compare you to other students. This is because grading scales and class difficulty varies among high schools. One other thing to keep in mind is that applying to schools where your SAT/ACT score is above their average admitted student score raises your odds of admission because your score will raise the schools' averages. Remember, colleges are also trying to maximize their score profiles, and getting students with higher SAT/ACT scores to apply can make them look good. The Bad News Your transcript and GPA are very important, especially for competitive schools. Stanford says on their admissions website, â€Å"We expect you to challenge yourself throughout high school and to do very well. The most important credential that enables us to evaluate your academic record is the high school transcript.† Why is the transcript – including your GPA – so important? Because your GPA shows your performance over a long period of time, as well as your ability to succeed in tough classes. This is important to help colleges decide if you will be able to succeed in their classes. If you’re a junior or senior with a low GPA, you don’t have a lot of time to raise it before you turn in your college applications. So what can you do? We will tell you what colleges might think about your low GPA and high ACT/SAT combination, questions they will have, and tips for you based on what your exact circumstances are. How Low Is Low? Of course, just how low your GPA is will affect your odds of admission. There is a huge difference between a 3.5, which would be considered low at selective colleges but well within range at many state schools, and a 2.0, which is considered low at most colleges. Also make sure you're not being hard on yourself... you may think your 3.9 GPA is low, but most colleges won't. Find out what the admitted student GPA range is at your target schools. You can do this by searching â€Å"[Name of College/University] Average GPA Admission† or â€Å"[Name of College/University] Admission Requirements.† If your GPA is just out of range, your high SAT/ACT score will likely make up for your GPA, especially if the rest of your application is strong. But if your GPA is far below their range, it will be especially important to use your application to explain why your GPA is low. So if you’re reaching for a tough college, or have a way out-of-range GPA, read on to find out what to do! What Do Colleges Think of Your High SAT/ACT and Low GPA? If you have a high SAT/ACT score but low GPA, admissions officers will assume your academic potential is high – your SAT/ACT score shows that – but that your motivation is low, hence your low GPA. A â€Å"smart slacker† could be the first thing that comes to mind when an admissions officer reads your file. So what you have to do is prove that assumption wrong. Whether you have personal circumstances leading to a low GPA, a demanding extracurricular, or other academic preparation outside of high school classes, your goal is to show that not only are you smart – but you can also work hard and do well in college. We will go through a series of scenarios, guided by the main questions admissions officers will be asking, about why your GPA is low and what it means. For each scenario, we have some specific advice, but read through all of them as your situation is likely unique and combines multiple scenarios. Why Is Your GPA Low? This is the big question admissions officers will have when they see your application. This is the question your application has to satisfyingly answer, especially if you want a shot at top colleges. We will explore the two circumstances most likely to excuse a low GPA. Don’t worry if these don’t apply to you – we have plenty more advice coming! Scenario 1: Extenuating Circumstances If you have serious extenuating circumstances like a medical condition or family crisis, definitely explain them on your application. This would fit in the â€Å"extra information† box for sure, but it could also be good material for your personal statement. For example, if you have a low GPA because your family had financial troubles, both of your parents started working long hours, and you became the primary caretaker for younger siblings and didn’t have time for homework, that should definitely be on your application as part of your story. Or if your grades suffered due to a medical condition, you should definitely make that known on your application. In short, if you had serious outside circumstances that affected your grades, make sure you explain them thoroughly on your application. You want to make sure colleges know that, in your case, your GPA wasn’t entirely in your control. You should highlight academic interests and classes you did do well in, but the explanation of your circumstances will be the best way to help admissions officers evaluate your file fairly. Scenario 2: You Spent Tons of Time on an Extracurricular If you spend a lot of time on an extracurricular – say you’re a debater who’s been to nationals or an award-winning flute player – at the expense of classes, it won’t excuse a low GPA, but it will improve your chances. In addition to top scores and high GPAs, colleges are also looking for exceptionally talented students in specific fields. If you have an exceptional ability, it could overcome a low GPA, especially with your high ACT/SAT score. Any extracurriculars done at the national level will look especially good. Do neither of these situations apply to you? Keep reading. If you've played Carnegie Hall, colleges will probably be fairly forgiving about that C in Biology... What Kinds of Classes Were You Taking? A low GPA in hard classes will look better than a low GPA in easier ones. You should think about the pattern of grades you received and why you got low grades where you did. College admissions officers will be trying to figure out this pattern too, so make it easier for them and explain whatever pattern you have. For example†¦ Scenario 3: You Took Hard Classes and Got a Low GPA Did you overload yourself with too many hard courses and struggle to keep up? In your essay, you could talk about what you learned from taking on too much at a time and how you will be more careful and focused in college. Since you were in those hard classes, you should also highlight what you learned and any intellectual development you experienced. For example, even if you got a low grade in AP Biology, maybe taking it convinced you that you want to explore pre-med courses in college and so you began volunteering at a local hospital or signed up for a medical anatomy class. That kind of journey would show colleges that you have serious interests, and even if your grades aren’t high, you are capable of doing hard work and improving. Scenario 4: You Took Easy Classes and Got a Low GPA Were you uninterested by easy classes at your school, and ended up slacking off? This will be a harder sell, but if you were in mostly regular classes (not honors or AP or IB) and got a low GPA, you could argue you simply weren’t interested by your classes and had a hard time keeping up with menial assignments, but did have intellectual pursuits in your free time. The above argument will be more compelling if you went to a high school without very many honors, AP, or IB options. Your application would also be strengthened if you have a career goal in mind and do well in certain classes related to it. For example, if you want to be a lawyer and manage to pull decent grades in English and History, it could help convince admissions officers that despite your slacking in other classes, you will be able to pull together and focus on your major in college. Hint: video games don't count as an intellectual pursuit (unless you design them). What’s Your Grade Trend? While a high GPA is important, so is an overall trend of improved grades or harder classes year to year. Whether you have a rising grade trend or a sinking one, read on to learn what it means and how it affects your applications. Scenario 5: You Started With Low Grades but Improved If you’re reading this as a sophomore or junior, work to improve your grades starting now. You won’t be able to totally fix your GPA, but you will be able to show a story of improvement, which can be just as important. A pattern of improved grades shows that you fixed issues you had with time management and have gotten better at handling assignments and tests. This growth is important because it shows admissions officers you can continue to grow and improve in college. This will look especially good if you have been succeeding in honors, AP, or IB classes later in your high school career, as it suggests you are learning the skills needed to succeed in college. If you have this pattern on your transcript, definitely spend some time on your application explaining why you struggled at the beginning of high school, and what caused you to improve your grades. Along with a high ACT/SAT score, an improved GPA can convince colleges you are academically prepared. Scenario 6: You Started With High Grades but They Dropped If you started with great grades and your GPA has fallen, you’ll have to explain why. Took on too many hard classes? You became overly involved in a sport or extracurricular? Illness in the family? It will also be especially important to prove you have other academic or intellectual interests, like we will discuss below. A lowering grade trend is more worrisome to collegesbecause it suggests you had a hard time coping with harder classes later in high school, or even that you’ve burned yourself out before college. You will have to prove that you have strong academic interests and are capable of doing well, despite your trend of sinking grades. One way to do this is to take a few Honors, AP or IB classes senior year and make sure you do well in them. Colleges will see a mid-year grade report, so if they see that you have taken on harder classes and are doing better, that will reassure them that you are capable of doing well in college courses. Another way to reassure colleges is with SAT Subject Tests. Some colleges require them for admission, some don’t, but nearly all will consider them. Getting high SAT subject tests scores will help convince admissions officers that you’re academically capable in certain subjects. If you haven’t taken any SAT Subject Tests yet, consider it – many students take them late in the game (even in Senior fall). If you are confident of your ability on tests, and you have even a bit of time to devote to studying, a high SAT subject score or two could help prove your ability in academic subjectsand help overshadow your GPA. If your GPA trend looks like this, you have some explaining to do... Can You Prove Your Academic Preparation in a Different Way? If your GPA is low and you don’t have a good reason for it, your task will be to prove to colleges you are still academically prepared, despite your low GPA. Your high ACT/SAT score is the first step towards proving yourself, but also consider other ways you can show your smarts†¦ Scenario 7: You Have One Weak Subject Is there a certain subject you struggle in? Is your GPA low because you have Ds in math but As and Bs everywhere else? If so, you should highlight your strengths in other subjects. For example, If you have great grades in English classes, highlight that on your application and talk about what draws you to English and why you enjoy it. Show that you have strong intellectual interests in your best subjects, which you can do through your personal statement or college supplements on the Common App. If you have done outside work or an extracurricular related to these classes, even better. For example, if you’re great at English and history and spend time outside of class in Mock Trial, you can talk about how your interest in law drives you to do well in history and English. This won’t totally excuse low math grades you might have, but it will show colleges you have strong academic interests. Help colleges focus on the positive! Scenario 8: You Took and Passed AP or IB Exams Did you take and pass AP or IB exams? For example, even if you got Cs all year in World History but passed the test with a 4, that at least proves you mastered most of the material. If this is the case for you, highlight exams you did well on and talk about your intellectual interest in those subjects. You could address why you didn’t do well in the classes in the â€Å"extra information† box, but focus on explaining your academic interests and how you want to continue pursuing them in college in the personal statement. Remember, you want to demonstrate your academic abilities to colleges. A passing AP/IB score is an important piece of evidence, so follow it up with an essay further explaining your interests! Scenario 9: You Took Outside Enrichment Classes Whether you attended an academic summer camp or took an extra course or two at a community college, definitely put that information on your application. It won't make up for your low grades, but it will show colleges that you are serious about your intellectual pursuits and made time outside of school for learning. This can be especially helpful if you get an additional letter of recommendation from a professor or instructor you worked with. Scenario 10: You Have Academic Interests Outside of School So your GPA is low, but do you do things like read War and Peace in your spare time? Have you learned a coding language on your own and designed your own app? If you can’t show your academic preparation through any high course grades or AP/IB exam results, find a way to include outside academic interests in your application. If you’ve attended Hackathons or entered writing contests, fit that into your application under extracurriculars. This kind of outside interest could be great material for a personal statement as well. Basically, if you have academic preparation or interests that are not going to show up on your transcript, make sure they show up on your application! It will be reassuring to admissions officers to see you have outside intellectual pursuits. Writing code is a more acceptable excuse for slacking off in Algebra than watching television... How Can You Compensate With the Rest of Your Application? College applications are holistic, meaning they consider the candidate as a whole. GPA is just one factor. While it’s an important factor, if everything else on your application is strong you can improve your chances of admission. Having a high SAT/ACT score is your big advantage because you won’t be weeded out immediately based on your score. Read on to see how to maximize the other categories. Personal Statement Your essay is another opportunity to prove yourself. If you had significant extenuating circumstances, you could talk about them here. If you were bored and slacked off, use the essay as a space to explain an intellectual interest or hobby to offset your low GPA. No matter what you write about, make sure your essay is well-written and presents your unique voice. Remember – you no longer have control over your GPA, but you have complete control over your essay and how it presents you. Use it wisely! Extracurriculars Do you have any other extracurriculars that speak to intellectual aptitude? Math competitions, Model United Nations, writing for the school newspaper – these are the kinds of extracurriculars that support academic interests. If you have them, definitely highlight them. Extracurriculars in the arts – from musical instruments to drawing to theater – are also great because they speak to interests outside of the classroom. You should also talk about your involvement in sports, since that excelling in them requires both discipline and teamwork skills. In short, you should highlight any extracurricular activity you have, even if you don’t think it’s significant. Extracurriculars can help show colleges you have outside interests, discipline, and the ability to work with others. These are all important factors, but can also help make up for a low GPA. Teacher Recommendations For your letters of recommendation, find teachers who can either speak to your personal circumstances or believe in your academic potential. You want to make sure your recommendations are supporting evidence for your application, not contradicting information. For example, if your GPA is low due to an illness, find a teacher who can speak to your perseverance when you were sick, or how hard you worked once your condition improved. If you don’t have extenuating circumstances like that, make sure you find teachers who have great, specific things to say about you and your academic potential. Maybe you have an English teacher who always loved your essays or a math teacher who often called you to the front to explain problems on the board. Find teachers who recognize your abilities and would write you a kind letter. Don't get a teacher to write a letter just because they taught you in a hard subject. If a recommender doesn't have specific things to say about you, the letter won't help your application. If you’re not sure you can get an amazing recommendation from a teacher, many colleges allow an additional letter to be submitted, from someone like a coach or boss. Find a third person who you know will speak very highly of you and use them for that third letter. Where Are You Applying? Your odds of admission will also depend on where you’re applying. For example, say you have a 2360 SAT but a 2.7 GPA. While your SAT would make you competitive for the Ivy League, it will be harder to overcome your low GPA at highly competitive schools. They simply have too many applicants with both high test scoresand high GPAs to admit many people with a serious deficiency in either. That 2360 alone won't get you into Harvard... However, if you apply to less competitive schools where your SAT is far above their 25-75 percentile ranges, you would actually be quite a desirable candidate since your SAT score would raise their averages. (The 25-75 ranges are the score ranges that the middle 50 percent of colleges’ accepted students fall in. For example, a 25-75 range of 24-30 ACT means that 25% of applicants scored lower than a 24, 25% scored higher than 30, and the middle 50% were between 24 and 30.) Furthermore, a less competitive school will be more forgiving of a weak spot on your application, in this case your GPA, as opposed to a very selective school. As a general rule, it’s important to apply to a range of colleges. Don't just apply to all eight Ivy Leagues hoping that one will let you in. Apply to a few schools that are reaches given your GPA and ACT/SAT combo, a few that are safe targets, and a few that you think you will definitely get into, like state or community colleges. You want to make sure you have some choices when it’s time to decide which college you’ll attend. What’s Next? Learn about automatic scholarships for SAT/ACT scores. While colleges usually factor in GPA or Class Rank, see how far your high test score can get you. Want to use SAT Subject Tests to raise your chances of admission? Learn which colleges require SAT Subject Tests for admission. Check out our SAT/ACT Percentile rankings guides to see just how much your high score stands out. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Punctuation with Conjunctions

Punctuation with Conjunctions Punctuation with Conjunctions Punctuation with Conjunctions By Mark Nichol The rules for punctuating in proximity to simple coordinating conjunctions (and, but, and or) are straightforward, but writers can become confused about when and where to put a comma or other punctuation. Sentences that illustrate the basics, and a discussion of each, follow. When a conjunction links an independent clause (one that could stand on its own as a sentence) with a dependent clause (one that would form an incomplete sentence), omit internal punctuation: â€Å"She went to the pool and took a swim,† or â€Å"She went to the pool but did not swim.† (â€Å"She went to the pool† is an independent clause; â€Å"took a swim† and â€Å"did not swim† are dependent.) When a conjunction links two independent clauses, precede it with a comma: â€Å"She went to the pool, and then she took a swim,† or â€Å"She went to the pool, but she did not swim.† (â€Å"Then she took a swim† and â€Å"she did not swim† are independent clauses.) The comma may be omitted for a very short compound sentence such as â€Å"She swam and then she ate†; longer sentences, such as the examples given earlier in this paragraph, are often written without internal punctuation, but doing so is not recommended, and for consistency, even brief sentences with two independent clauses should include a comma. A comma should not follow a conjunction unless it is the first of two commas framing a parenthetical phrase, as in â€Å"She went to the pool and, soothed by the cool water, took a swim† and â€Å"She went to the pool but, chilled by the cold water, did not swim.† (Said another way, don’t precede a verb with a comma unless the comma closes a parenthetical.) These commas bracket â€Å"soothed by the cool water† and â€Å"chilled by the cold water,† respectively, which, when omitted, leave the sentences â€Å"She went to the pool and took a swim† and â€Å"She went to the pool but did not swim,† which do not require internal punctuation. A pair of em dashes or parentheses can take the place of the two commas: When the parenthesis is abrupt or provocative, use em dashes, as in â€Å"She went to the pool and- undeterred by the piranhas- took a swim.† When the interruption is subtle or offered as an aside, use parentheses, as in â€Å"She went to the pool and (though she felt tired) took a swim.† Although older literature, especially that written in British English, can be found that employs both a semicolon and a conjunction to provide a stronger contrast between two independent clauses (â€Å"She went to the pool; but she did not swim†), this is now considered incorrect, because the semicolon and the conjunction are redundant to each other. If you use a semicolon, the sentence should be rendered as follows: â€Å"She went to the pool; she did not swim.† Use of a comma in place of a semicolon in such a sentence is incorrect; this error is called a comma splice. Sentences in which or connects clauses should follow the same guidelines: â€Å"She went to the pool or the beach,† â€Å"She went to the pool, or she went to the beach,† â€Å"She went to the pool or, depending on the weather, the beach.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Punctuation category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Writing Prompts 101Confusing "Passed" with "Past"Running Errands and Doing Chores